Is Space Exploration Fostering Greater Collaboration or More Competition Among Global Superpowers?
Introduction:
As more rockets soar beyond Earth's atmosphere, space exploration sparks a new race; one that’s not just to reach the farthest star, but one that leads humanity into the future. But is this pursuit one that will unite nations or reignite old rivalries?
Since the mid-20th century, space programs have been a symbol of national pride and power. The modern world’s space efforts display a complex mix of collaboration and competition that reveal both challenges and opportunities towards finding an ideal balance.
The Cold War, Space Race, and a New Era:
During the Cold War (1947-1991), the United States and the Soviet Union led the world in space travel and innovation. They turned the cosmos into a competitive arena known as the ‘Space Race’, to achieve superiority in spaceflight, mainly driven by a desire to prove technological and military dominance. This race unfolded through milestones: Sputnik 1, the formation of NASA, Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space and Apollo-11 moon landing.
However, the end of the Cold War shifted the dynamics of space exploration, and opened doors to international cooperation, such as the International Space Station (ISS). The involvement of more countries such as Europe, Japan and Canada increased global space recognition. Meanwhile, the fall of the Soviet Union paved the way for a new competitor, China, whose growing technological capabilities shook the US space program. China and India, new space faring countries along with private companies such as SpaceX and Blue Origin have changed the landscape. With new collaborators and competitors, missions such as Mars colonization, reusable rockets and lunar mining can become increasingly competitive or internationally driven.
Competition: the Militarization of Space
Space is no longer only an area of science, it’s an arena of strategic dominance.
Branching off from the U.S. Armed Forces, The U.S. Space Force (USSF) is designed to protect national interests in space, especially considering how integral it has become to defense and intelligence strategies. Similarly, China’s People Liberation Army (PLA) Strategic Support Force aims to fight ‘informatized conflict’ and strengthen the country’s capabilities in space. These national organizations marked a shift in the military, and recognized space as a warfare domain where superiority can distinguish dynamics on Earth.
Anti-satellite weaponry (ASAT) is another major development. ASAT weapons are designed to disable or intercept satellites that may be used in military operations. If a country has advanced weaponry, the ability to neutralize an opponent's satellites can offer an advantage in conflict. For example, India's ASAT mission, Mission Shakti, conducted in 2019, successfully demonstrated the country’s ability to intercept satellites in low Earth orbit [UPPCS MAGAZINE]. This mission proved to nations with ASAT systems that space is now a powerful place for national security.
Satellites, Surveillance and GPS Systems:
These satellites aren’t just vulnerable targets, they’re vital infrastructure. They play an important role in surveillance, communication and navigation. ISR satellites, or more commonly known as spy satellites, help nations intercept signals, track military troops, and monitor missile tests. This availability and precision offered by ISR companies can change how global conflicts are planned and executed.
Another example of strategic dominance in space is GPS control. The U.S. GPS is the most widely used system, but other nations have developed alternatives; China’s BeiDou, Russia’s GLONASS, and India’s NAVIC to reduce reliance on U.S. infrastructure. As more systems emerge, GPS spoofing and jamming have risen sharply. Broadcasting fake GPS signals has increased by 62% over conflict zones, according to the ICAO 2024 Global Aviation Report. [Schneider et al, 2024]. This threatens not only military operations but also civilian navigation.
National Prestige and Technological Superiority:
In the modern world, space achievements are a powerful tool for displaying national prestige and technological superiority. For example, in 2021, the U.S utilized their successful rover ‘Perseverance’ to exhibit and uphold the country's stance in space innovation. China also established their superiority through the Tiangong Space Station (TSS).Tiangong, or ‘Heavenly Palace’ doesn’t only display China’s strength in space exploration, but also helps the country work independently to train astronauts and build large-scale rockets.
Countries now leverage working independently to be the most successful in space missions and prove national security to countries that may be of a threat. However, it’s not only countries that compete in the ‘Space Race’; it’s private sectors too.
Private Sector Influence in Modern Space:
As space becomes more commercialized, private enterprises such as the United States Blue Origin and SpaceX and China’s state led enterprises have developed as key players in the modern space industry.
SpaceX, a private U.S enterprise, operates under NASA and has become the US's central unit for access to low Earth orbit. Its Starlink 12-26 satellite infrastructure also holds strategic value and provides internet and service to remote and conflict-stricken regions. As of 2025, over 6,900 operational Starlink satellites orbit Earth, showing the capability and techno-sovereignty of U.S companies. BlueOrigin is slowly developing its own infrastructure, such as the New Shepard suborbital rocket for space tourism and the New Glenn orbital rocket. SpaceX focuses on lowering launch costs and expanding U.S. space access, while Blue Origin emphasizes tourism and infrastructure. Their rivalry ultimately benefits the U.S. by pushing innovation.
China’s system is different. Chinese organizations that are led by the China National Space Administration (CNSA) and functions with state-owned companies such as CASC (China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation) and CASIC (China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation).
Although the U.S. depends on a governmental system supported by enterprise risk, China's system allows for increased efficiency, long-term planning, and integration of space-tech with military background. This has created a rivalry between two different countries, each trying to outdo each other in technology, innovation, and spacefaring.
Collaboration: The ISS and Collaborative Missions:
Although headlines highlight the escalating competition, ongoing collaboration continues to grow. The International Space Station (ISS), involving over 15 countries, including the United States, Russia, Japan, Canada, and the European Space Agency (ESA) was built in 1998. The ISS is a symbol of peaceful cooperation and scientific benefit beyond Earth’s borders.
Introduced by NASA, the Artemis Accords have been signed by over 30 countries, mainly allied with the U.S. Although mainly showing U.S. leadership, they also show that space should be explored through cooperation rather than competition. The ESA has strong connections with both NASA and Roscosmos, Russia’s space agency. Despite the U.S. and Russia’s geopolitical tension on Earth, ESA’s cooperation displays that science can be used to bridge divides and promote discovery even between rival nations.
Scientific exchange and peacebuilding is the backbone of space cooperation. ISS Countries utilize joint research and investigation for the globe. For example, in space, the lack of gravitational force leads to bone decay and astronauts can lose up to 1.5% of bone mass per month. To tackle this, NASA and the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), started a collaborative study with medicine, specifically bisphosphonates, a drug used to treat osteoporosis [ISS National Lab]. The study showcased the collaborative efforts from the U.S. and Japan to improve medical safety aboard the ISS, despite their own personal goals.
Despite geopolitical tensions on Earth, countries take initiative to unify in the cosmos. In January 2025, NASA and Roscosmos agreed to extend their joint flight to the ISS to 2027, in hopes of the SpaceX Dragon Mission. This agreement included "cross-flights," where astronauts from each country travel on each other's spacecraft. For instance, in April 2025, a Russian MS-27 rocket launched from Kazakhstan, carried Russian cosmonauts Sergei Ryzhikov and Alexei Zubritsky, along with a NASA astronaut Jonathan Kim, to the ISS [Jeuters et al, 2025]. This initiates collaborative effort towards space exploration and saves resources and money, especially for countries without a strong space background. It also builds the co-dependence of countries, increasing global interconnectivity.
The Role of Global Organizations and Global South In Peaceful Exploration:
Beyond nations, global organizations are critical to shaping the future of space. The UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), with 102 member states, creates cooperative frameworks for spacefaring. The International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG), with 27 national agencies such as ISRO, NASA, Roscosmos and ESA, share planning and technology exchange.
The Global South is also rising in relevance. Investing over $456 million, The African Union’s African Space Agency (AfSA) in Egypt, works to unite all 55 AU countries under a shared space policy. In Southern America, countries such as Brazil and Argentina have strong partnerships through joint satellite missions such as the SAOCOM, that aid in tracking environmental changes. Meanwhile, India’s ISRO program is also leading the South. India has cooperated by signing space agreements with over 70 countries, including launching satellites for nations like Singapore, Mauritius, and Indonesia. These collaborations strive to reflect science, diplomacy and build peaceful, strategic relationships through space exploration and shared innovation.
Blurred Lines: Where Competition and Collaboration Collide:
Space exploration is a paradox, where collaboration and competition collide. The U.S. and Russia ISS’s partnership, despite the Ukraine war and sanctions, joint missions still continue. NASA and Roscosmos have extended their cross-flight program to 2025, ensuring joint missions despite their strained diplomatic relations on Earth.
On the commercial side, international competition coexists with collaboration. For example, while SpaceX is at the top of its launch markets, Glavkosmos, a commercial subsidiary of Roscosmos extends its launch services internationally. China’s CNSA markets satellite launches and technology to partner countries, especially across the Global South. These blurred lines show that space, while political, also requires interdependence to function.
Governance is amplifying competition and fostering more collaboration, driving the space industry forward. The Outer Space Treaty signed by 166 countries in 1967 was a groundbreaking agreement for its time that highlighted a key principle; ‘space is the “province of all humankind,” no country can claim ownership of the Moon or other celestial bodies, and no weapons of mass destruction are allowed in orbit’. But over 50 years later, this treaty is showing its limits. It struggles to outline how commercial companies can operate in space, or how resource extraction from the moon and planets should be regulated.
A new branch of framework has emerged to combat the treaty’s unspecificity; the Artemis Accords. The Accords don’t introduce new laws, but set a refreshed vision, to protect space and humanity simultaneously.
China and Russia built a new model, the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS). The station attracts countries such as Venezuela, Pakistan, and Belarus. This station fosters a multilateral collaboration without U.S. leadership, and has long-term plans to build a shared Moon base by 2030, possibly powered by nuclear energy. These two paths, although working collaboratively, highlights the growing divide over who sets space rules.
Conclusion:
As new competitors enter the space arena and old rivalries reappear, stronger global principles and shared goals are more important than ever. Competition has grown by fueled military involvement, commercial strength, and national prestige. Yet, even with geopolitical tensions, collaboration remains not only possible but essential. Whether we explore space as allies or adversaries will not just underline our reach beyond Earth, but the kind of world we build on it.
Citations:
Wikipedia – People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force
“People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force.
UPPCS MAGAZINE – ASAT Weapons
“Anti-Satellite (ASAT) Weapons: Strategic Importance for India.” UPPCS MAGAZINE, https://uppscmagazine.com/anti-satellite-asat-weapons-strategic-importance-for-india/
NASA – Artemis Accords
“Artemis Accords.” NASA, https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/.
United Nations – COPUOS
“Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS).” United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html.
Global Space Exploration – ISECG
“International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG).” Global Space Exploration, https://www.globalspaceexploration.org/.
Britannica – Space Race
“Space Race.” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/space-race.
PubMed – NASA/JAXA Bisphosphonate Study
LeBlanc, Adrian, et al. “Bisphosphonates as a Supplement to Exercise to Protect Bone during Long-Duration Spaceflight.” Osteoporosis International, vol. 24, no. 7, July 2013, pp. 2105–2114. PubMed, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23334732/.
ISS National Lab – Microgravity Study
“Nature’s Lab: Studying the Human Body in Space.” ISS National Lab, https://www.issnationallab.org/iss360-nell1-nature-microgravity/.
Simple Flying – IATA GPS Spoofing Report
King, Howard. “IATA Reports a 500% Spike in GPS Spoofing Incidents Last Year.” Simple Flying, 22 Apr. 2024, https://simpleflying.com/iata-500-spike-gps-spoofing-last-year
Foreign Policy – GPS Spoofing in War Zones
Schneider, Tobias. “GPS Spoofing Is the New Weapon in War Zones.” Foreign Policy, 19 Mar. 2024, https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/03/19/war-zone-gps-spoofing-threat-civil-aviation-russia-iran